Chapter-1

The Discovery of Indian Turtles, with Notes on

Publications, Type Localities and Type Repositories

Indraneil Das

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.

E-mail: idas@ibec.unimas.my

Introduction

An appreciation of India’s turtle diversity, reported as the richest in the world (Iverson, 1992), perhaps would include historical aspects behind its discovery. This essay traces the history of the discovery of Indian turtles, from Linnean to recent times. It retains the original orthography (as derived from an examination of the original publication) and I have attempted to trace all primary types of Indian turtles. Further biographical notes on important collectors and written contributors can be found in the works of Adler (1989), Archer (1962), Bauchot et al. (1990), Das (2004), Dawson (1946), Fransen et al. (1997) and Leviton and Aldrich (2000).

Appendix 1 comprises institutional repositories of turtle type material and Appendix II is an analysis of turtle names.

The Linnean period (1758–)

Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), in the 10th edition of ‘Systema Naturae’, described several turtles, of which three marine species are known from India. All were allocated to the genus Testudo, though none of the types were collected from India. The type locality of the first of these, Testudo Caretta, current name- Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) was indicated as “insulas Americanas” in the original description, and was restricted to “Bermuda Island” (32°20’N; 64°45’W, the Atlantic Ocean) by Smith and Taylor (1950), and further to “Bimini, British Bahamas” (25°44’N; 79°15’W) by Schmidt (1953). Wallin (1985) indicated that no type specimen of Testudo caretta existed. Another marine turtle described by Linneaus was Testudo Mydas, current name- Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758). The NHRM 19, 26 and 231 syntypes, were from “Insulas pelagi: insulam Adscensionis” (= islands of the oceans: Ascension Island and so on..), restricted to “Insel Ascension” (= Ascension Island, 07°57’S; 14°22’W, in the Atlantic Ocean) by Mertens and Müller (1928). The third species is Testudo imbricata, current name- Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766). Its presumed holotype is ZMUU 130, according to Smith and Smith (1979), although Wallin (1985) indicated that no type specimen ever existed. The original description mentioned that it originated from “Mari Americano, Asiatico” (= American and Asian seas), and was restricted to “Bermuda” (32°20’N; 64°45’W; in the Atlantic Ocean) by Smith and Taylor (1950).

Other sea turtle species were described subsequently. For instance, Chelonia olivacea, current name- Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829), based on types that are probably in MZT, according to Smith and Smith (1979), was from “chinesische Meer” (= China Sea), “Bai von Manilla” (= Manila Bay, 14°37’N; 120°58’E, Luzon, the Philippines) and “Sumatra” (in the Greater Sundas, Indonesia), and Testudo coriacea, current name- Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761), whose holotype is an uncatalogued ZMUP specimen (Fretey and Bour, 1980). Vandelli (1761), in his letter to Linnaeus, gave the type locality as “maris Tyrrheni oram in agro Laurentiano” (= to the mouth of the Tyrrhean Sea in Laurentium countryside), although Linnaeus (1766) gave the provenance as “Mari mediterraneo, Adriatico varius” (= either the Mediterranean Sea or the Adriatic), which was restricted to “Palermo, Sicily” (38°08’N; 13°23’E; in Italy) by Smith and Taylor (1950), and restricted again by Fretey and Bour (1980) to “la côte romaine (Italie), Mer Tyrrhénienne, Méditerraneanée occidentale” (= the Roman coast [Italy], Tyrrhenean Sea, western Mediterranean Sea), which Bour and Dubois (1983) restricted to “Laurentum, between Lido di Ostia and Tor Paterno, shore of the Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy” (not extant at present and once located at ca. 41°42’N; 12°17’E, about 7 km from Lido di Ostia and 4 km from Tor Paterno).

Colonial Period: Europe

Intense British interest in the natural history of her colonies spurred explorations in hitherto uncharted areas of the Empire. Prominent explorers included Major-General Thomas Hardwicke (1756–1835), an armyman, who served in the Bengal Artillery of the East India Company, and collected natural history specimens and coloured sketches of plants and animals. Hardwicke’s collection of natural history art ran into some 32 folio volumes that included over 2,000 drawings, of which 366 were of amphibians and reptiles. These were based on specimens collected/observed by his artists around places he was posted, especially Bengal and the United Provinces. His most famous contribution was a work which he collaborated with John Gray (1800–1875) of the British Museum, entitled ‘Illustrations of Indian Zoology’ (Gray, 1830–1835). The text was not published, owing to Hardwicke’s premature death. The work was famous in depicting several turtle iconotypes, including Emys baska, current name- Batagur baska (Gray, 1830), which was apparently not based on biological material (= type specimens), and type locality was not specified, and was later restricted to “India” by Gray (1831); Emys dhongoka, current name- Batagur dhongoka (Gray, 1832), the type of which is currently untraced, and no type locality was specified, was subsequently restricted by Smith (1931:130) to “N. India”; and Emys kachuga, current name- Batagur kachuga (Gray, 1831) (Plate 1A), similarly without type material or specific type locality, again restricted by Smith (1931:131) to “N. India”. In the massive folio work where these Indian turtle names appeared, two familiar turtle names were credited to the British herpetologist, Thomas Bell (1792–1880), as Gray cited an unpublished Bell manuscript (see Wheeler, 1998), and Emys tectum, current name- Pangshura tectum (Bell in: Gray, 1831), whose type specimens have not been located, with the type locality of the species simply given as “India”.

John Gray’s solo efforts resulted in a number of papers that described new turtle taxa. Cyclemys mouhotii- current name- Cuora mouhotii (Gray, 1862), the original type series composed of BMNH 1947. 3.4.27, 1947.3.4.48–49 and 1947.3.4.64–67 (seven syntypes), was described from “Lao Mountains, in Siam”, restricted without explanation to “presumably the Luang Prabang mountain range on the border between Thailand and Laos” (also spelt Louang Phrabang, ca. 20° 00’N; 102° 30’–50’E, Luang Prabang Province, Laos) by King and Burke (1989). Fritz et al. (1998) designated BMNH 1947.3.4.27, as a lectotype, reiterating the type locality, as previously restricted, to “Luang Prabang, Laos, 19°54’N, 102°8’E)”. The species was, of course, named for Henri Mouhot (1826–1861), the French naturalist and explorer who collected reptiles in Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, and wrote an account of his travels “Voyages dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge de Laos et autres parties centrales de l’Indo-Chine”. Another Gray discovery was Emys Hamiltonii, current name- Geoclemys hamiltonii (Gray, 1830), based on the holotype, BMNH 1947.3.4.41 from “India”, according to the BMNH register, although OUM 8477 is also labelled as a syntype. The namesake for this taxon is Dr. Francis Hamilton (1762–1829), aka Francis Buchanan, botanist and surgeon with the British East India Company based in Bengal and Burma. In the same volume, Gray described another geoemydid, Emys Thurjii, current name- Hardella thurjii (Gray, 1831), based on two syntypes (OUM 8433–34), from “India”. Two other species described by Gray currently allocated to the genus Pangshura: Emys tentoria, current name- Pangshura tentoria (Gray, 1834), based on a holotype, BMNH 1947.3.4.72, from “Indiæ Orientalis regione Dukhun dictâ” (= the Deccan region of southern peninsular India), and was restricted to “Dhond, Poona Dist.” (15°30’N; 75°04’E, Maharashtra State, west-central India) by Smith (1931:128), and Batagur smithii, current name- Pangshura smithii (Gray, 1863), was based on two syntypes (BMNH 1947.3.4.69–70), that were acquired from “North-western India: Punjab” and “River Chenab”” (in Pakistan or north-western India), and named for Sir Andrew Smith (1797–1872), the Director-General of the Army Medical Board, and author of ‘Illustrations of the zoology of South Africa’.

Softshell turtles appear to have been a favourite of John Gray, and he described a number of species worldwide (many currently in synonymy). The distinctive Trionyx Hurum, current name- Nilssonia hurum (Gray, 1830) was based on Buchanan Hamilton’s drawings in the BMNH from “Indiæ fluvio Ganges”, although the drawing bears the locality “Fatehgarh” (27º22’N; 79º38’E, Uttar Pradesh, northern India), to which the type locality was restricted by Smith (1931:171). Webb (1980a) emended the type locality to “Barrackpore (about 23 kilometers north Calcutta), West Bengal, India” (= Barakpur, 22º45’N; 88º20’E). A congener, Trionyx Leithii, current name- Nilssonia leithii (Gray, 1872) was described on the basis of two syntypes, BMNH 1947.3.4.15 and 1947.3.6.7 from “Poonah” (= Pune, 18°34’N; 73°58’E, Maharashtra State, south-western India). Gray is also credited with the description of two remarkable trionychid turtles: Trionyx indicus, current name- Chitra indica (Gray in: Griffith and Pidgeon, 1831), which has been generally stated to be based on a colour plate in Gray (1831:Pl. 80), from “India, fl. Ganges, Penang” (the latter locality at present spelt Pulau Pinang, 05º30’N; 100º28’E, West Malaysia, in error), according to Gray (1831). However, Farkas (1994) demonstrated that a RCSM specimen (from Penang), that was destroyed during World War II, was part of the original type series. The type locality was restricted to “Fatehgarh, Ganges” (27º22’N; 79º38’E, Uttar Pradesh, northern India) by Smith (1931:162). The second species, Pelochelys cantorii Gray, 1864, was based on two syntypes, BMNH 1947.3.6.21–22, from “Malacca” (= Melaka, 02º12’N; 102º15’E, West Malaysia). The last-mentioned species was named in honour of Theodore Edward Cantor (1809–1860), Danish surgeon-naturalist with the British East India Company, who collected and got illustrations of Indian reptiles sketched by local artists.

Gray’s successor in the BMNH, Albert Carl Ludwig Gotthilf Günther (1830–1914) prepared a catalogue of the herpetofauna of an expanded British India, entitled “The reptiles of British India” that included the description of a new turtle, Pangshura flaviventer Günther, 1864, treated by some authorities as a subspecies of Pangshura tentoria, based on the holotype, BMNH 1947.3.4.82 (ex-BMNH 80.1.28.8); its type locality was not specified, but several turtles along with the holotype originated from “Bengal” (at present West Bengal State, eastern India, as well as Bangladesh). Günther, in turn, was succeeded by George Albert Boulenger (1858–1937), whose encyclopaedic knowledge of the world’s herpetofauna is reflected in his voluminous publication record. A Boulenger tortoise name is Testudo travancorica, current name- Indotestudo travancorica (Boulenger, 1907), based on two syntypes, BMNH 1946.1.22.80–81 (a third syntype cannot be located at present), from “near Trivandrum” (on p: 560) (= Tiruvanathapuram, 08º30’N; 76º57’E, Kerala State, south-western India) and “..Travancore hills between 500 and 1,000 feet altitude, but not higher” (p. 560–561; the Travancore region is located in the southern Western Ghats, south of Palghat, 10°46’N; 76°39’E, Kerala State, south-western India). For some years, turtle biologists and others followed the opinion of Hoogmoed and Crumly (1984), in considering Schlegel and Müller’s (1844) name, Testudo forstenii, as valid for the species from India’s Western Ghats, arguing for an introduction of the Indian species into Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia, through human agencies.

Research on continental Europe too was active at the time. Prominent among them were the French, centred around MNHN. François-Marie Daudin (1774–1804), the author of a multi-volume series on the world’s herpetofauna, entitled “Histoire naturelle, génerale et particulière des reptiles” described Testudo amboinensis, current name- Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1801 “1802”). Daudin mentioned that the type was lost at sea before he saw it (see also Bour in Rummler and Fritz, 1991:36) and wrote that the description of Testudo amboinensis was based on a manuscript by the French naturalist Claude-Antoine-Gaspard Riche (1762–1797), in the footnote on page 309, following the short description of the species. However, Bourret (1941:149), in his work on the turtles of Indo-China and adjacent areas, mentioned that the type was in MNHN (where it cannot be located at present). The type locality was given in the original description as “Amboine” (= Ambon, 03°41’S; 128°10’E, Maluku [Moluccas], Indonesia).

Printing presses flourished in Europe from the end of the 1700s, and many scholarly volumes appeared, with extensive colour plates, often distributed via subscription to the landed gentry as well as scholarly institutions of the time. One such work is ‘Historia Testudinum iconibus illustrata’, authored by Iohannes Davidis Schoepff (1752–1800), and published between the years 1792–1801, which described the now familiar Indian star tortoise, Testudo elegans, current name- Geochelone elegans (Schoepff, 1795). The holotype has not been traced, although Schoepff (1795) mentioned that the specimen on which the species was based was from Museis Hagae Comitis et Harlemi (possibly TSMHN in Haarlem, the Netherlands), and came from “India orientali” (= eastern India). The date of publication of Testudo elegans, which was in part III of Schoepff’s work is usually given as 1794. However, Ernst et al. (1994) showed that the third part was published in 1795. Petrus (also, Pieter) Boddaert (1730–1796), in a rarely-seen bilingual (Dutch and Latin) work, with an extremely long title (see reference) and typically shortened to ‘Epistola’ described the now familiar large south-east Asian trionychid turtle, Testudo cartilaginea, current name- Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert, 1770); the holotype, originally at the Museo viri Celeberrimi Johannis Alberti Schlosseri, is at present MNHN 4150. No type locality was specified, and Baur (1893) subsequently restricted it to “Java” (in the Greater Sundas, Indonesia). Another French encyclopaedia, ‘Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature. Erpétologie’ by Pierre-Joseph Bonnaterre (1751–1804), described the familiar Testudo punctata, current name- Lissemys punctata (Bonnaterre, 1789) (Plate 1B), based on MNHN 7978 (ex-MNHN 819; holotype), from “Des grandes Indes” (= continental India), which was restricted to “Pondicherry, Coromandel Coast, India” (11º56’N; 79º53’E, on the south-east coast of India) by Webb (1980b). French nobleman, Baron Georges Jean-Léopold-Nicolas-Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (1769–1832), in his work on fossil vertebrates, described Trionyx gangeticus, current name- Nilssonia gangetica (Cuvier, 1825), on the basis of MNHN 9387 (ex-MNHN 799; lectotype designated by Bour et al., 1995), from “Gange, Inde” (= River Ganga, northern India); MNHN 4148 (ex-MNHN 797; paralectotype), MNHN (AC) a.5226 (ex-MNHN V.130; paralectotype) and MNHN (AC) 1887.838 (ex-MNHN V.77; paralectotype).

Two other continental workers will be discussed here. August Friedrich Schweigger (1783–1821), in his monograph on the world’s chelonians, entitled “Prodromus monographiae cheloniorum” described Emys trijuga, current name- Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger, 1812). The holotype was in the MNHN, according to the original description, but cannot be traced at present. The type locality was given as “insula Java” (in the Greater Sundas, Indonesia; in error), the collector, French explorer and naturalist, Jean-Baptiste-Louis-Claude Théodore Leschenault de La Tour (1773–1826), having collected in both Java and India, presumably may have had the label of the holotype transposed with that of a Javanese specimen. The last turtle name to be discussed in this section is one created by René-Primevère Lesson (1794–1849) in a volume entitled “Centurie Zoologique, ou cloix d’A. maux rares, nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus”. Emys thermalis, current name- Melanochelys trijuga thermalis (Lesson, 1830) (Plate 1C), whose types are untraced at present, acquired from “Ceylan” (= Sri Lanka), the species observed “..dans les eaux thermals de Cannia,.. Ceylan” (= living in the hot waters of Cannia [= Kanniya, 09°15’N; 80°41’E, near Trincomalee, Eastern Province], .... in Sri Lanka). This subspecies has since been reported from southern Peninsular India.

Colonial Period: India

Edward Blyth (1810–1873), was hired from England in 1840 as the first Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta. Blyth’s success in building up the museum through acquision of specimens was largely through the establishment of contact with civil servants in far-flung parts of the British Empire, including Brian Houghton Hodgson (1800–1894), British diplomat and official Resident in Kathmandu, Nepal, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arthur Purves Phayre (1812–1885) in Burma; the Dutch-Ceylonese civil servant and naturalist, Edward Fredric Kelaart (1819–1860) in Ceylon; and the British administrator, Robert Francis Christopher Alexander Tytler (1818–1872) in the Andaman Islands. Three currently-valid names of Indian turtles and tortoises are credited to Blyth, including two testudinid species- Testudo elongata, current name- Indotestudo elongata (Blyth, 1853), based on four syntypes (ZSI 796 and ZSI 798–800), from “Arakan” (= Rakhine Yoma, a mountain range along coordinates ca. 21–18°N; 93–95°E, western Myanmar); Testudo Phayrei, current name- Manouria emys phayrei (Blyth, 1853), based in two syntypes (ZSI 813 and ZSI 15492), also from “Arakan”, in addition to “Tenasserim Provinces” (= Taninthayi, ca. 12º05’N; 99º00’E, southern Myanmar) and the geoemydid, Geomyda tricarinata, current name- Melanochelys tricarinata (Blyth, 1856), which was described on the basis of a dried shell, ZSI 816 (holotype), from “Central India (Chaibása)” (= Chaibassa, 22°31’N; 85°50’E, Jharkhand State, eastern India).

Major Thomas Claverhill Jerdon (1811–1872), an authority on Indian mammals and birds, and a member of the Asiatic Society, collected extensively from the Himalayas and the Khasi Hills. His important herpetological publications include two papers that deal with his collections. The sole turtle species Jerdon described is Pangshura Sylhetensis, current name combination unaltered, except for Jerdon’s usage of upper case ‘S’ for the species nomen- Pangshura sylhetensis Jerdon, 1870, based on three syntypes, BMNH 1947.3.4.22 and BMNH 1947.3.4.62–63, from “Terria Ghat at the foot of the Khasi hills” (unlocated in the maps and gazetteers consulted, presumably in Sylhet District, Bangladesh, where several localities named Tori Ghat [= passenger country boat stations] exist).

John Anderson (1833–1900), who replaced Blyth after the natural history collection of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was transferred to the newly established Indian Musem, was the first Supervisor of the Museum. An Indian softshell turtle species described by Anderson is Trionyx nigricans, current name- Nilssonia nigricans (Anderson, 1875), based on material from “Chittagong, Bengal” (22º20’N; 91º48’E, Chittagong District, south-eastern Bangladesh). The two syntypes, ZSI 664 and 1898, are extant at present. Long considered to be restricted to a single pond attached to a shrine in Chittagong, south-eastern Bangladesh, it has, in recent years, been found widespread in north-eastern India. Anderson took part in the two Yunnan Expeditions (1868–69 and 1874–75), and produced a fine work in 1878 (published in 1879) entitled ‘Anatomical and zoological researches: comprising an account of the zoological results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a monograph of the two cetacean genera, Platanista and Orcella’, which was a monograph on the vertebrate fauna of the Upper Burma-Yunnan region and included a review of freshwater turtles of India and adjacent regions of south-east Asia. Anderson described two geoemydid turtles, Emys trijuga var. Coronata, current name- Melanochelys trijuga coronata (Anderson, “1878” 1879), based on the holotype, ZSI 1012, from “Travancore” (southern Western Ghats, south of Palghat, 10°46’N; 76°39’E, Kerala State, south-western India) and Batagur (Morenia) petersi, current name- Morenia petersi (Anderson, “1878” 1879) (Plate 1D), based on three syntypes (ZSI 155–156 and ZMB 8865), that were purchased in a “Calcutta bazaar”, the type series originating from “Huzurapur in the Jessore District” (unlocated), Furreedpore (= Faridpur, 23º29’N; 89º31’E, Faridpur District) and “Dacca” (= Dhaka, 23º42’N; 90º22’E, Dhaka District), Bangladesh. The species was named for Wilhelm Carl Hartweg Peters (1815–1883), Curator of the ZMB.

Thomas Nelson Annandale (1876–1924), joined the Indian Museum as Deputy Superintendent and is credited with the establishment of the Zoological Survey of India in 1916. Although primarily an ecologist and limnologist, conducting extensive work on the ecology of Asian lakes, Annandale described several new herpetological taxa, including the turtle, Geoemyda indopeninsularis, current name- Melanochelys trijuga indopeninsularis (Annandale, 1913), based on two syntypes (ZSI 17098 and 17100 from “Singhbhum district of Chota Nagpur” (ca. 22°30’N; 85°30’E, Orissa State, eastern India) and one (in error) from “Dharwar district...southern part of the Bombay Presidency” (ca. 18°28’N; 74°38’E, Maharashtra State, western India).

A collector of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, acquired the holotype (ZSI 17117) of the enigmatic geoemydid, Geoemyda silvatica, current name, Vijayachelys silvatica (Henderson, 1912), from “Near Kavalai in the Cochin State Forest...at an elevation of about 1500 feet above sea level” (10°06’–23N; 76°09–53’E, Thrissur District, Kerala State, south-western India). Henderson (1912) also examined a juvenile from the same area, but it was not made part of the type series, and no descriptions were provided.

Post-colonial Period

Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala (1900–1973), Director of the National Museum, Colombo published an important account on the crocodilians and turtles of Sri Lanka, entitled ‘The tetrapod reptiles of Ceylon. Vol. 1’, published in 1939, as well as a two volume set in the ‘Colored Atlas’ series (Vol. 2: Tetrapod reptiles, including crocodilians, turtles and lizards; and Vol. 3: Snakes), between 1953–1955. Deraniyagala described 51 taxa of reptiles, both living and fossil. Deraniyagala (1933) described a subspecies of Caretta caretta from Sri Lanka, which he named gigas, based on a shell (BMNH 1947.3.5.76) and cranium (BMNH 1946.1.22.64; ex-BMNH 1934.5.1.1), from “Ceylon”. The illustration in the original description is of a mounted specimen in the Colombo Museum, which should also be part of the type series, which need to be treated as syntypes. It is assumed that this subspecies name applies to the adjacent Indian populations.

Western contributors to the knowledge on Indian turtles continued well into the period post independence, and into modern times. Robert Friedrich Wilhelm Mertens (1894–1975) from Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, conducted extensive field work in Pakistan on herpetofaunal diversity, describing numerous new species. A new turtle described from northern India by Mertens is Kachuga tecta circumdata, current name- Pangsura tentoria circumdata (Mertens, 1969), based on SMF 52793 (holotype) and SMF 47847 (paratype), from “Meerut, Indien” (= Meerut, 29°00’N; 77°42’E, Uttar Pradesh, northern India); SMF 51067 (paratype), SMF 51569–71 (three paratypes), “Gebiet von Calcutta, Indien” (= vicinity of Kolkata, ca. 22°30’N; 88°20’E, West Bengal State, eastern India); SMF 58084 (paratype), “Calcutta”; SMF 61209 (paratype), “200 km nordwestlich Calcutta” (= 200 km north-west of Kolkata, possibly around the Jharkhand-West Bengal border, eastern India, at coordinates ca. 23°47’N; 86°32’E); SMF 65292 (paratype), without data; in addition, the location of two paratypes, that were alive at the time of description, are at present unknown.

During the course of his investigations on the systematics and nomenclature of the ubiquitous Indian “mud” turtle (genus Lissemys), Robert Graven Webb (1927–), then Professor at the University of Texas at El Paso, USA, noticed that incorrect subspecies names were being applied, the unspotted peninsular Indian (and Sri Lankan) granosa representing the type of the species Lissemys punctata, which, strangely, left the equally common northern subspecies nameless. Webb then supplied a name for this form, Lissemys punctata andersoni Webb, 1980, based on the holotype, MNHN 1977.1986 from “Belbari, Terai, south-eastern Nepal, elevation 210 m” (ca. 26°33’N; 87°43’E, near Haraincha, Kosi Province), and named after John Anderson (1833–1900), Superintendent of the IMRR.

A significant joint US-Indian research project, headed by Edward Owen Moll (1939–) was conducted for India’s freshwater turtles in the early-1980s. One of the new taxon described was Kachuga smithii pallidipes, current name- Pangshura smithii pallidipes (Moll, 1987), comprising FMNH 224177 (holotype), from “Gandak River, Bherihari Wildlife Sanctuary, Bettiah (West Champaran) District, Bihar” (26°48’N; 84°30’E, northern India); USNM 257778 (paratype), “Karnali River, Royal Bardia Wildlife Reserve, 2 km N. Thakurdara, Nepal” (28°11’N; 81°31’E); and FMNH 224186 (paratype), “Ghagra River, near Kailaspuri at Girija Barrage, Bahraich District, Uttar Pradesh” (Ghagra River mouth at coordinates 23°17’N; 84°33’E, in northern India). A second subspecific nomen relevant to Indian turtles was occupied in the course of a revision of Cuora amboinensis: Cuora amboinensis kamaroma Rummler and Fritz, 1991, derived from Thai material (ZMH–R 00277 [holotype], “circa 50 km nördlich von Bangkok, Thailand” [= about 50 km north of Bangkok, 13º45’N; 100º31’E, Phra Nakhon Province, Thailand]; MNHN 2032: 1–2 [two paratypes], “Bangkok”; RMNH 14902: 1–2 (two paratypes), “Bangkok”; SMF 64641, “Bangkok”; SMF 68190 (paratype), “Bangkok”; SMNS 5480 (paratype), “Bangkok”; SMNS 5484: 1–2 (two paratypes), “Bangkok”; SMNS 7493 (paratype), “Bangkok”; ZMH–R 00276 (paratype), “circa 50 km nördlich von Bangkok, Thailand”; ZMH–R 00278 (paratype), “circa 50 km nördlich von Bangkok, Thailand”. The most-recent Indian turtle to be described is Cyclemys gemeli Fritz et al. (2008), from “..street from Tezpur to Arunachal Pradesh, 5 km to border of Arunachal Pradesh, Jia Bhoroli River Region, Assam, India”, based on NMW 37153 (holotype).

Among higher level turtle taxon names created in recent years is the geoemydid turtle genus, Vijayachelys Praschag, Schmidt, Fritzsch, Müller, Gemel and Fritz, 2006, type species: Geoemyda silvatica Henderson, 1912, monotypy and designation. It was named in honour of Jagannathan Vijaya (1959–1987), turtle biologist with the Madras Snake Park Trust and the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, who spent several months living in a cave to study the biology of this species.

Acknowledgements

I thank Karthik Vasudevan for inviting me to write this essay. Support for the preparation of the manuscript was provided by Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.

The following colleagues generously shared information on holdings, loans of specimens, facilities extended during visits, translations, unpublished information and bibliographic and other assistance: Kraig Adler, Erik Åhlander, Aaron Bauer, Wolfgang Böhme, Ronald Crombie, Patrick David, Peter Paul van Dijk, Balázs Farkas, Uwe Fritz, Richard Gemel, Heinz Grillitsch, Marinus Hoogmoed, John Iverson, Werner Kästle, Tom Kemp, Sven Kullander, Alan Leviton, Colin McCarthy, Roy McDiarmid, Peter Pritchard, Van Wallach, Romulus Whitaker, Er-Mi Zhao and George Zug.

Finally, I’d like to thank Kraig Adler and Genevieve V. A. Gee for reading an earlier version of this manuscript.

References

Adler, K. 1989. Herpetologists of the past. In: Contributions to the history of herpetology. pp:5–141. K. Adler (Ed). Contributions to Herpetology, Number 5, Oxford, Ohio.

Anderson, J. 1875. Description of some new Asiatic mammals and Chelonia. Ann. & Mag. nat. Hist. Ser. 4 16:282–285.

Anderson, J. “1878” 1879. Anatomical and zoological researches: comprising an account of the zoological results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a monograph of the two cetacean genera, Platanista and Orcella. Bernard Quaritch, London. Vol. I (text:xxv + 984 + general index) & II (plates: corrigenda + Plates I–LXXXI + 1–29 pp).

Annandale, N. 1913. The tortoises of Chota Nagpur. Rec. Indian Mus. 9(1):63–78, Pl. V–VI.

Archer, M. 1962. Natural history drawings in the India Office Library. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office Library, London. ix + 116 pp; 25 pl.

Bauchot, M.-L., J. Daget and R. Bauchot. 1990. L’ichtyologie en France au début du XIXe Siècle l’Histoire Naturelle des poissons de Cuvier & Valenciennes. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. Nat. Sér. 4 Sec. A (Zool., Biol. Écol. Anim.) 12(1) suppl.:3–142.

Baur, G. 1893. Notes on the classification and taxonomy of the Testudinata. Proc. American Phil. Soc. 31:210–225.

Blyth, E. 1853. Notices and descriptions of various reptiles, new or little known. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 22:639–655.

Blyth, E. “1855” 1856. Report for October Meeting, 1885. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 24(7):711–723.

Boddaert, P. 1770. Brief van Pieter Boddaert, Medicinae Doctor, Oud Raad der Stad Vlissingen, Lid van het Zeeuwsche Genoodschap der Wetenschappen te Vlissingen, aan den Weledelen gestrengen Heere W. Roëll, Medicinae Doctor, Commissaris der Stad Amsterdam Bewindhebber der West-Indische Compagnie, en Directeur der Societeit van Suriname, Behelzende eene Naaukeurige Beschrijving, en naar het leven vervaardigde Ajbeelding, van de Kraakbeenige Schildpad, Uit de Verzameling van Wylen Weledelen zeer Geleerden Heere Johannes Albertus Schlosser, in Zijn Weled. Leven in Zeer Kundig Artz, Lid van het Koninglijk Genoodschap te London, en van het Zeeuwsche Genoodschap der Wetenschappen te Vlissingen/Petri Boddaert, Medicinae Dosctoris, Urbis Flissingae exconsiliarii, Societatis Zeelandicae scientiarum, quae Flissingae est, Socii, Epistola ad virum amplissimum W. Roëll, Medicinæ Doctorem, urbis Amstelodami Commissarium, Societatis Indicae Occidentalis Moderatorem, Societatis Surinamensis Directorem Sagacissimum de testudine cartilaginea, descripta atque accuratissima icone illustrata ex Museo viri Celeberrimi Johannis Alberti Schlosseri, dum in vivis esset Medicinæ Doctoris expertissimi, Societatis regiæ Londinensis, atque Societatis Zeelandicæ quæ Flissengæ est, Socii. Cornelium van Tongerlo, Amstelodami (= Amsterdam). (4) + 39 (+ 1 = errata) pp; 1 pl.

Note: This is a bilingual work, with the title appearing in both languages (Dutch and Latin) on separate pages.

Bonnaterre, P.-J. 1789. Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature. Erpétologie. Panckoucke, Paris. xxviii + 70 pp.

Boulenger, G. A. 1907. A new tortoise from Travancore. J. Bombay Natural History Society.. 17(3):560–564; 1 Pl.

Bour, R. H. and A. Dubois. 1983. Nomenclatural availability of Testydi ciruacea Vandelli, 1761: A case against a rigid application of the rules to old, well-known zoological works. J. Herpetol. 17(4):356–361.

Bour, R. H., A. Dubois. and R. G. Webb. 1995. Types of recent trionychid turtles in the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. Dumerilia 2:73–92.

Bourret, R. 1941. Les tortues de l’Indochine. Inst. Océanograph. l’Indochine 38:1–235.

Cuvier, G. 1825. Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadropèdes où l’on rètablit les caractères du plusieurs espèces d’animaux que les revolutions du globe paraoissent voir detruites. Vol. 5. Third edition. Dufour d’Ocagne, Paris.

Das, I. 2004. Herpetology of an antique land: the history of herpetological explorations and knowledge in India and south Asia. In: Herpetological expeditions and voyages. A. M. Bauer (Ed). Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 52(2): 215–229.

Daudin, F.-M. 1801 “1802”. Histoire naturelle, génerale et particulière des reptiles. Vol. 2. F. Dufart, Paris. 432 pp.

Dawson, W. R. 1946. On the history of Gray and Hardwicke’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology, and some biographical notes on General Hardwicke. J. Soc. Bibl. Nat. Hist. 2(3): 55–69.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1933. The loggerhead turtles (Carettidae) of Ceylon. Ceylon J. Sci. (B) 18(1): 61–72, Pl. V.

Ernst, C. H., R. W. Barbour and J. E. Lovich. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. xxxviii + 578 pp.

Eschscholtz, J. F. 1829. Zoologischer Atlas. enthaltend Abbildungen und Beschreibungen neuer Thierarten, während des Flottcapitains von Kotzebue zweiter. Reise um die Welt, auf der Russisch-Kaiserlichen Kriegsschlupp Prepriaetië in den Jahren 1823–1826. Part I. Berlin.

Note: Reprinted 1966, Introduction by K. Adler. Facsimile Reprint Series, The Ohio Herpetological Society, Athens, Ohio.

Farkas, B. 1994. Notes on type and type locality of the narrow-headed softshell turtle, Chitra indica (Gray, 1831) (Testudines, Trionychidae). Misc. Zool. Hungarica 9: 117–119.

Fransen, C. H. J. M., L. B. Holthuis and J. P. H. M. Adema. 1997. Type-catalogue of the Decapoda Crustacea in the collections of the Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum, with appendices of pre-1900 collectors and material. Zool. Verh. 311: i–xvi + 1–344.

Fretey, J. and R. Bour. 1980. Redécouverte du type de Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli) (Testudinata, Dermochelyidae). Boll. Zool. 47: 193–205.

Fritz, U., B. Andreas and E. Lehr. 1998. Eine neue Unterart der Dreikiel-Scharnierschildkröte, Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray, 1862) (Reptilia: Testudines: Bataguridae). Zool. Abh. Staatliches Mus. Tier. Dresden 50(3): 33–43.

Gray, J. E. 1830–1832. Illustrations of Indian zoology, chiefly selected from the collections of Major-General Hardwicke. Vol. 1 (Parts I–X). Treuttel, Wurtz, Treuttel Jr., and Richter, London. (1) + (2) + 12 plates.

Note: According to Sawyer (1953) and Zhao and Adler (1993), the years of publication of the plates are as follows: Plates 72, 75, 77–78, 82–83: 1830; Plates 73–74, 76, 79–80: 1831; Plate 81: 1832.

Gray, J. E. 1830a. Synopsis Reptilum; or short descriptions of the species of reptiles. Part I.– Cataphracta. Tortoises, crocodiles, and Enaliosaurians. Treuttel, Wurtz, and Co., London. viii + 85 pp; I–IX Pl.

Gray, J. E. 1831. A synopsis of the species of the Class Reptilia. In: The Class Reptilia, arranged by the Baron Cuvier, with specific descriptions. Vol. 9. pp: 1–110. E. Griffith and E. Pidgeon (Eds). Whittaker, Treacher, and Co., London.

Gray, J. E. 1832–1835. Illustrations of Indian zoology, chiefly selected from the collections of Major-General Hardwicke. Vol. 2 (Parts XI–XX). Treuttel, Wurtz, Treuttel Jr., and Richter, London. (1) + (2) + 31 plates. Note: According to Zhao and Adler (1993), the years of publication of the plates are as follows: Plates 60 and 63: 1832; Plates 58–59, 61–62, 64, 67, 69–82: 1834; Plates 65–66, 68, 83–87: 1835.

Gray, J. E. 1834. Characters of several new species of freshwater tortoises (Emys) from India and China. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1834(18): 53–54.

Gray, J. E. 1862. Notice of a new species of Cyclemys from the Lao Mountains, in Siam. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2 10: 157.

Gray, J. E. 1863. Notice of a new species of Batagur from north-western India. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1863(2): 253.

Gray, J. E. 1864. Revision of the species of Trionychidae found in Asia and Africa, with the descriptions of some new species. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1864(1): 76–98.

Gray, J. E. 1870. Supplement to the catalogue of shield reptiles in the collection of the British Museum. Part I. Testudinata (tortoises). British Museum, London. x + 120 pp.

Gray, J. E.  1872. Notes on the mud-tortoises of India (Trionyx, Geoffroy). Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4 10: 326–340.

Günther, A. 1864. The reptiles of British India. Ray Society, London. xxvii + 452 pp. + I–XXVI pl. Note: Reprinted around 1982, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta.

Henderson, J. R. 1912. Preliminary note on a new tortoise from South India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7(3): 217–218.

Hoogmoed, M. S. and C. R. Crumly. 1984. Land tortoise types in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire with comments on nomenclature and systematics (Reptilia: Testudines: Testudinidae). Zool. Med. 58(1): 241–259.

Iverson, J. B. 1992. Global correlates of species richness in turtles. Herpetological Journal 2:77–81.

Jerdon, T. 1870. Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 1870(3): 66–85.

King, F. W. and R. L. Burke. 1989. Crocodilian, tuatara, and turtle species of the world: A taxonomic and geographic reference. Association of Systematics Collections, Washington, D.C. xxii + 216 pp.

Lesson, R.-P. 1830. Centurie Zoologique, ou cloix d’A. maux rares, nouveaux ou imparfaitement connus. Levrault, Paris.

Leviton, A. E. and M. L. Andrich. 2000. India: a case study of natural history in a colonial setting. In: Cultures and institutions of natural history. Essays in the history and philosophy of science. pp: 51–80. M. T. Ghiselin and A. E. Leviton (Eds). California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.

Leviton, A. E., M. L. Andrich and R. H. Gibbs, JR. 1988. Standards in herpetology and ichthyology. Part I. Standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology. Supplement no. 1: Additions and corrections. Copeia 1988(1): 280–282.

Leviton, A. E., M. L. Andrich, R H. Gibbs, Jr, E. Heal and C. E. Dawson. 1985. Standards in herpetology and ichthyology. Part I. Standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology. Copeia 1985(3): 802–832.

Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Laurentii Salvii, Stockholm. (4) + 823 + (1) pp.

Note: Reprinted 1894 by Deutsch Zoologische Gesselschaft and 1939 and 1956 by the British Museum (Natural History). 824 pp. + Emendanda and Addenda.

Linnaeus, C. 1766. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Duodecima, Reformata. Laurentii Salvii, Stockholm. (4) + 823 + (1) pp.

Note: Section on Amphibia (Tomus I, Pars II, 1767: pp: 347–393, addenda [unpaginated in the original]); reprinted 1963 by the Ohio Herpetological Society.

Mertens, R. 1969. Eine neue Rasse der Dachschildkröte, Kachuga tecta. Senckenbergiana Biol. 50(1/2): 23–30.

Mertens, R. and L. Müller. 1928. Liste der Amphibien und Reptilien Europa. Abh. Senck. Naturf. Gesell. 41: 1–62.

Moll, E. O. 1987. Survey of the freshwater turtles of India. Part II: The genus Kachuga. J. Bombay Natural History Society 84(1): 7–25.

Praschag, P., C. Schmidt, G. Fritzsch, A. Müller, R. Gemel and U. Fritz. 2006. Geoemyda silvatica, an enigmatic turtle of the Geoemydidae (Reptilia: Testudines), represents a distinct genus. Organisms, Diversity & Evol. 6:151–162.

Rummler, H.J. and U. Fritz. 1991. Geographische Variabilitat der Amboina–Scharnierschildkröte Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1802), mit Beschreibung einer neuen Unterart, C. a. kamaroma subsp. nov. Salamandra 27(1): 17–45.

Sawyer, F. C. 1953. The dates of issue of J. E. Gray’s “Illustrations of Indian Zoology” (London, 1830–1835). J. Soc. Bibl. Nat. Hist. 3(1): 48–55.

Schlegel, H. and S. Müller. 1844. Over de schildpadden van Indischen Archipel en beschreijving eener nieuwe soort van Sumatra. In: Natuurkundige commissie in Indië en andere Schrijvers. Zoologie. Vol. 3. pp: 29–36. C. J. Temminck (Ed).

Schmidt, K. P. 1953. A check list of North American amphibians and reptiles. Sixth edition. American Society for Ichthyology and Herpetology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. viii + 280 pp.

Schoepff, I. 1792–1801. Historia Testudinum iconibus illustrata. Johannis Jacobi, Palm, Erlangae. xii + 136 pp. + Pl. I–XXII.

Note: Latin version of Naturgeschichte der Schildkroten mit Abbildungen erlautert. Johannis Jacobi Palm, Erlangen. The dates of publication of the parts, acccording to Ernst et al. (1994) is: 1792: 1–32; 1793: 33–88; 1795: 89–136; 1801: 137–160.

Schweigger, A. F. 1812. Prodromus monographiae cheloniorum. Königsberg. Arch. Naturwiss. Math. 1: 271–358, 406–458.

Smith, H. M. and R. Smith. 1979. Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico. Vol. VI. Mexican turtles. Johnson, North Bennington, Vermont. 1044 pp.

Smith, H. M., R. Smith and E. H. Taylor. 1950. Type localities of Mexican reptiles and amphibians. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 33(8): 313–380.

Smith, M. A. 1931. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London. xxviii + 185 pp + 2 pl.

Note: Reprinted 1970 Ralph Curtis Books, Hollywood, Florida and numerous reprints from 1980 Today and Tomorrow’s Publishers, Dehradun.

Vandelli, D. 1761. Epistola de Holothurio, et Testudine coriacea ad celeberrimum Carolum Linnaeum Equitem Naturae Curiosum Dioscorcidem II. Conzatti, Patavii. 12 pp.

Wallin, L. 1985. A survey of Linneaus’s material of Chelone mydas, Caretta caretta and Eretmochelys imbricata (Reptilia, Cheloniidae). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 85: 121–130.

Webb, R. G. 1980a. Gray, Hardwicke, Buchanan-Hamilton, and drawings of Indian softshell turtles (Family Trionychidae). Amphibia-Reptilia 1(1): 61–74.

Webb, R. G. 1980b. The identity of Testudo punctata Lacépède, 1788 (Testudines, Trionychidae). Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris 4e 2: 547–557.

Wheeler, A. 1998. Dates of publication of J. E. Gray’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology (1830–1835). Arch. Nat. Hist. 25(3): 345–354.

Zhao, E.M. and K. Adler. 1993. Herpetology of China. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Contributions to Herpetology, No. 10, Oxford, Ohio. 522 pp + 48 pl. + 1 folding map.

Appendix I

Abbreviations of systematic institutions mentioned in the text are listed below. Where available (marked with an asterisk), abbreviations follow Leviton et al. (1985) and Leviton et al. (1988).

·     The Natural History Museum, London (formerly, British Museum of Natural History), U.K. (BMNH*)

·     National Museum, Colombo, Sri Lanka (CMS*)

·     Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, U.S.A. (FMNH*)

·     Indian Museum Reptile Registry, Calcutta, India (IMRR*; now accessioned in the collection of the ZSI)

·     Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France (MNHN*)

·     Zoological Museum, Estonia, Russia (MZT*)

·     Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden (NHRM*)

·     Naturhistoirisches Museum Wien, Vienna, Austria (NMW*)

·     Oxford University Museum, Oxford, U.K. (OUM*)

·     Royal College of Surgeons, London, U.K. (RCSM)

·     Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum (formerly Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire), Leiden, The Netherlands (RMNH*)

·     Natur-Museum und Forschungs-institut Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, Germany (SMF*)

·     Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Stuttgart, Germany (SMNS*)

·     Teylers Strichtina Museum, Haarlem, the Netherlands (TSMHN*)

·     National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. (USNM*)

·     Zoologisches Museum Humboldt-Universität, Berlin, Germany (ZMB*)

·     Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany (ZMH*)

·     Museo Zoologico, Instituto di Zoologia, Zoologia Comparativo e Genetico, Università di Padova, Italy (ZMUP*)

·     Zoologiska Museet, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, Sweden (ZMUU*)

·     Zoological Survey of India, National Zoological Collection, Kolkata, India (ZSI*)

Appendix II

Etymology of Indian Turtle Names.